To become a Greening company begin with a decarbonization audit.

Greening

The world is determined to meet the Paris Agreement GHG reduction targets in time to meet 2050 temperature reduction goals. To do that the transportation businesses have to cut pollution in ways consistent with the long term viability of the industry. A good starting point is to start today. Here are some guidelines that can launch your business on the path to success. 1. Green companies are low GHG emitters because of the product and services they provide.2. Greening companies are not low GHG emitters today because of the nature of the production process. 3. Greening companies understand that our way of life is not going to survive if we keep heating up our planet. 4. They know the world population wants to have a green future and that their customers share that ambition. 5. Greening companies realize that responding to customer wants for green products and services is transformative in creating opportunities for sustaining the long term viability of their industries, retaining and building their customer base. 6. Greening companies in high polution industries are serious about transitioning to low GHG emissions. 7. They have credible plans to transform the emissions footprint their businesses make. 8. Greening companies are researching and developing low carbon energy, agriculture, construction, steel, mining and transportation. 9. They are transforming by investing in lower carbon green hydrogen, biofuel and electric propulsion. 10. Buying the products and services of Greening companies is critical to enable them increase their R&D to the point where they can upscale biofuel, battery technology and green hydrogen to manufacture green products and services consumers are demanding in their drive to meet the Paris Agreement goals for 2050.

The decarbonization audit is the pathway for Greening company stakeholders and customers to support a transition to a Green future.

Preparation for voluntary and/or compulsory CO2e emissions programs is intensifying as national and local governments implement country specific decarbonization programs to comply with the Paris Agreement standards. If you want to be ahead of the curve, phone Patrick Harris on +1 561-702 7849 to discuss the format of the decarbonization audit and its uses.

Decarbonize your aircraft - it starts with an audit!

Decarbonization, lowers the amount of Greenhouse Gas produced. Carbon Capture, buries CO2 back into the Earth! The best path to NET ZERO is to stop producing more CO2.

Shannon Aero Objective. The goal is to offer our aircraft, airport and MRO decarbonization processes worldwide to stakeolders wanting to reduce GHG.

OEM take action to decarbonize aircraft.

The airlines and investors who buy new aircraft expect the manufacturers to build them over the product life cycle, in factories that minimize GHG emissions and use emissions reduction operating methods. Airbus and Boeing have responded by committing to developing and use sustainable, renewable resources in the short and long term. in making their case, they point to a long history of innovation built on products and partnerships such as: 1. Airbus and Boeing teams work with partners in 10 countries focused on sustainable efforts. 2. Their intention is to incorporate the latest airframe, propulsion, systems technology, propulsion and fuel systems in every market and every aircraft size. 3. The standard they have set is to manufacture aircraft that will meet specific energy efficiency, environmental, and operational goals as early as 2030. a. The "concept" Boeing Transonic Truss-Braced Wing (TTBW) target is to provide a 9% inprovement in fuel burn compared to a cantilever wing of the same technology level. b. The Boeing ecoDemonstrator flying test bed program used to test 170 emerging technology projects in flight. The eVTOL air taxi (CORA) has flown more than 1,500 test flights in four years researched in a JV focused on electric aviation and power systems development, testing, and certification of battery-electric vehicles that would be deployed in aerospace. c. Five demonstrators have been tested over the last 15 years powered by green hydrogen combustion engines and fuel cell applications. d. Advanced technology winglets that save fuel. e. Laser systems designed to detect clear air turbulance. f. Landing gears that reduce noise levels. 4. They work with communities, industries and associations such as AIA, Aerospace Defence Security and Space, ATAG, AFRA, A4A, AIrlines for Europe, Boeing Arospace Technology Institute Accelerator Project, CAAFI, Guam Solar Facility, IAEG, IATA, ICAO, MIT Climate & Sustainablility Consortium, Nordic Initiative for Sustainable Aviation, Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials (Switzerland), Sustainable Aviation Buyers Alliance (SABA), BC-SMART, SAFAANZ, SAFUG, and the World Economic Forum Clean Skies for Tomorrow Coalition (Germany). 5. HEFA+ Fuel Commercialization. 6. Sustainable aviation fuels (SAF). 7. SAF collaboration. 8. SAF Supply Chain Development. 9. Small farm SAF initiatives. 10. Hydrokinetic Turbines. 11. Carbon fiber recycling. 12. Resin Infusion & Carbon Fiber Recycling. 13. Air traffic management research. 14. Factories fitted with solar-powered paint facilities. 15. Aircraft recycling.& roadmap.

Tier One Suppliers and vendor decarbonization roles.

The number of aerospace and defence companies reporting the creation of net-zero programs at worksites is increasing. They frequenty invest in recycling, energy conversation technology powered by renewable energy. The industry has also signed up to buying emissions offset credits to balance the emissions produced in excess of defined levels.

Lessor decarbonization risk.

1. Without doubt the two changes that can decide the lessors future are legislation and regulation. 2. Improving fuel efficiency will not be the key driver for the intr4oduction of Net-Zero aircraft because the trend in 1% reductions in the fuel burn rate have been consistent since the 1960s, but began to slow in the post-2010 period to date. 3. If the implementation of CO2e emissions control is legislated for and if higher standards than the ICAO CORSIA scheme are included in the follow-on regulations then the market for gas turbine powered aircraft new, mid-life or end-of-life will be replaced by a Net-Zero aircraft market. 4. Shannon Aero defines this scenario as the CORSIA-Plus outcome. 5. The fact that airlines and lessors continue to order gas turbine engined aircraft may indicate that the lairlines and lessors are working on the assumption that the ICAO CORSIA scheme standard is likely to be the most stringent one they will encounter through to 2050. 6. The OEMs are relying on the view that drop-in fuel will be sufficient to meet the Net-Zero aircraft specifications required by airlines and lessors, and that this same standard will overcome the pressure for CORSIA-Plus programs being demanded by Civil Society Groups, investment institutions (some) and politicians. 7. For lessors to adopt these assumptions would suggest that they too are confident that any future legislation and regulations will be based on the CORSIA scheme.

MROs face complex decarbonization risks.

1. The MROs face multiple costly threats. If the change in technology is revolutionary in nature then repair shops will have to reequip and retrain their forkforce. 2. Costs will likely escalate further because MROs will have to maintain two care-and-maintenance systems for decades to come. Overlapping aside, they will need one maintenance platform for gas turbine powered aircraft and one for Net-Zero aircraft. 3. The idea that maintenance revenues may skrink does not factor in the two-platform scenario, nor does it take account of the maturity curve whereby maintenance costs rise after the introductory phase of a new technology and also rise at the end-of life phase of the technology being replaced. • The MRO market for retrofit and reconfiguration may pause until the market forsees if CORSIA regulations will accomodate the preference of airlines and investors for the existing fleet to complete the full life cycle through to 2050.

Airports will have to manage more than one fueling system.

1. Airport planners face multiple pressures. Airlines are working on fleet and route programs that look out into to the horizon for 10 years. For airports to be incorporated into airline plans, they must commit now to provide the fuel storage and handling technologies that have not yet been agreed upon in terms of the use of Jet-A, drop-in fuel, SAV, electric, hydrogen or hybred propulsion. 2. The Hub airports and to a lesser extent, the mini-hub airports can plan for multiple fueling systems and likely fund the build out. This is not likely to be the case for regional and local airports. The rebuilding of infrastructure investment capacity is reliant on an early and strong recovery in airline traffic with the same patterns as existed prior to the pandemic. Failing that, airports will look to government for funding support. This will require a lead time of several years before any financing support can be agreed on. 3. It is expected that the eVTOL aircraft market will emerged within a decade. This will lead to a thinning out process for airport with short distances of each other and servicing the same destinations. The eVTOL payload range will encourage travellers to shift their airport preferences to the ones with the most connections.

Government decarbonization role.

The role of government in decarbonization is to: 1. Provide policy inventives that gives the private sector confidence investing in developing and producing sustainable aviation fuels. 2. Provide clearly defined legislative and regulatory pathways that enable the profitable commercialization of sustainable, renewable feedstocks and SAF. 3. Infrastructure at the airport level, suitable for the upscaling of production and supply at costs that will make SAV price-competitive with fossil fuels. 4. Build out the infrastructure in such a way that stimulates SAF technology and production upscaling. 4. Development of regularory standards that encourage the research, development, deployment and distribution of SAF. 5. Create financial investives that encourages SAF R & D, deployment and distribution. 6. Subsidies designed to create stable market demand enables airlines to sign bulk purchase contract at prices competitive with Jet A. 7. Create a level playing field for aircraft investors and airlines who need certainty that new aircraft purchases will be certified to ICAO standards. 8. Codify and implement the ICAO and European Union alligned EPA CO2 emission-standards rule, in a way that enables manufacturers to build aircraft certified to EPA standard.

After seven decades of stretching, shrinking, upgrading, and reconfiguration, the tube and wing aircraft, will reach a point before 2035, when no meaningful advances can be made. SASI's services enable stakeholders to keep pace with designers proposing new concepts, & to enable decarbonization targets to be achieved by 2050.

Stakeholders will benefit by knowing the aerodynamics, structures, aircraft propulsion, aircraft equipment systems, materials tecnology, and R&D advances and the options for Net-Zero aircraft designs. They need to have a say in the ways technologies are introduced in areas such as natural and hybrid laminar flow control, high-bypass engine architectures, electric landing gear drives and onboard next generation fuel cells. These technologies come together over time with the first threshold focused on safety. The next one will be any change in technology decreases fuel burn efficiency by 25 to 30%!

Decarbonization bridges gap between design evolution & revolution.

Decarbonisation reduces Greehhouse gasses (GHG or CO2e) in Earth's biosphere. As nature does it, C02 absorbs and radiates heat and in the process keeps the Earth from freezing over. Human activity adds GHGs that the Earth's biosphere cannot process leading eventually to the biosphere overheating! The concepts of decarbonization and Net-Zero aircraft recognize that greenhouse gas emissions are put in the atmosphere every year. However, the rate of growth in GHG additions has to be slowed and eventually ended to reach climate change goals. The focus on carbon-related issues concerns clean energy transition , negative emissions technologies, carbon sequestration, the role of carbon regulation, markets, and pricing in reducing polution at regional, national and global levels.Decarbonization strategies can be designed to avoid putting greehhouse gasses in the atmosphere, but some sectors, such as agriculture, are hard to de-carbonize. Strategies are needed to take carbon out of the atmosphere to offset those emissions.The concept of net-zero recognizes that greenhouse gas emissions are put in the atmosphere every year.

Shannon Aero is targeting the needs of commercial aircraft owners.

The stakeholders we target are innovators, credit managers, engineers, mechanics, inspectors, flight crews & strategists in airlines/airports, MROs, manufacturers, suppliers, vendors, State Economic & Safety regulatory agencies, educational & research institutions, aerospace banks, lessors, investment institutions, hedge & private investment funds, insurance underwriters, trade associations, Civil Society Groups (CSGs) & local communities that make up the aircraft supply chain, the backbone of air travel, tourism, energy & aerospace industries.

Fundamental priorities.

Safety & security, environmental & innovation are priorities. Approvals for new aircraft designs are complex & are taking more time.

Lessons from the B737 MAX redesign, say customers flying on Net-Zero aircraft want more information before feeling safe in an aircraft. Airlines will buy aircraft built on evolutionary designs, if its safe.

• Approval for new aircraft design is complex over the life cycle because the machines are complex and:

• Confidence in using commercial aircraft for travel is based on the safety guarantee required by the traveling public.
• ICAO's first priority is "one ensuring the safe, efficient, and orderly evolution of international civil aviation.
• Every aircraft coming off the production line must meet these requirements.

Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAV) technologies are being developed that avoid putting greehhouse gasses in the atmosphere.

Carbon capture.

Nature's role is to capture GHGs, cleans the gasses, store and then release clean oxygen into the atmosphere. Like any system it has finite capacity to process GHGs. Human intervention has thrown the GHG / oxygen levels out of balance. The International Energy Agency (IEA) reports that the imblance is 1.6BN Mt of CO2e. In otherwords society must find ways to remove this acidic pollution and stop adding to it, in order for the Earth's biosphere to rebalance itself. One proposed solution is to replicate what nature does but to do it with machines. For decades now, carbon capture machines have been installed on smokestacks in power generation plants, cement factories, chemical plants, steel plants, mines and other energy intensive industries. The advantage of using carbon capture machines in industrial environments is that the CO2e is captured and filtered before it exits the facility. Power generators have opposed them because of cost, and consumers dislike them because they do hot have confidence in their ability to capture 100% of the pollutants from industrial infrastructure and then store them safely and securely. Also the question of economic viability. The international Energy Agency estimates that the 50 or so carbon capture machines in service draw about 40M Mt out of the air annually. Eventually, that number is expected to top out at about 150 machines. The CO2e is seperated from the air as it passes through a filter coated in amine, a technique adopted from submarines. The amine is an organic chemical, containing nitrogen derived from amonia. Other filtering chemicals are being studied including heat resistant organic salts, that require less energy to process. Battery power is also under consideration. However, carbon capture machine builders are far from reaching the point where the technology can be upscaled to economic viability.

"The options for reaching the Paris Agreement zero-emissions requirements for 2050, are limited for today's civil aircraft fleets, airport infrastructure and MROs.
The UNFCCC goals, and the ICAO CORSIA scheme for managing aircraft CO2 emissions that ends in 2035; prioritize innovation, safety & security, and the environment.

Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing, securing and storing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The idea is to stabilize carbon in solid and dissolved forms. The process shows promise in some industries for reducing the human carbon footprint. There are two main types of carbon sequestration: biological and geological. The carbon monoxide machine machine is 5 stories / 1 block long). To remove CO2 from the air, the machine compresses it & stores it back in the earth. Consideration will have to be given to the cost, distribution and practicality of locating these machines across a country.

If the move to plan the replacement of gas turbine engines does not accelerate, the time available to introduce evolutionary Net-Zero aircraft, will be curtailed. The aerospace industry will then face some stark choices ranging from doing nothing, investing in Net-Zero aircraft or carbon capture machines; to accepting the legal & regulatory enforcement of more costly emissions, economic & safety standards...... Source....... Shannon Aero Team.

Cost & scale are critical issues. At some point the CO2e has to be converted to other uses and that is where the challenge arises. Carbon capture requires the use of high amounts of energy, about three times that used in filtered smokestacks, and relies on cheap water supplies. Developers say that when mixed with water the residue can be injected into basalt rock in the Earth where it should solidify into rock over time. The cost of the process from equipment design to deep storage is expensive at $600 to $800 per Mt. Given that it takes about ten years to bring a new technology online, for carbon capture to be profitable in the long term, that cost of capture and storage needs to be closer to $100 by 2035.

The choices for climate neutral emissions.

The aerospace industry is facing some stark choices: Doing nothing, investing in Net-Zero aircraft, polution offsetting, carbon capture machines; to accepting the legal & regulatory enforcement of more costly emissions, economic & safety standards..... Targeted decarbonization approach: Method: Renewable, sustainable technology.In the first phase of the transition, Net-Zero aircraft will be derivatives of the tube-and-wing aircraft in service today, They will be phased out as evolutionary designs based on battery powered electric propulsion, sustainable aviation fuel, green hydrogen or hybred are proven in service. For some industries, in addition to the targeted reduction approach, becoming carbon neutral, requires the adoption of negative emissions technologies to meet the global warming limit of 1.5°C. Bolted on to this approach is carbon offsetting, the mechanism introduced originally to sustain the food supply chains. Another approach is for taxation instruments to be used to force industries to abandon the old and adopt the new. Negative emissions approach. Method: Offset credits, carbon squestration - CCS, CMR. Why: Carbon capture and storage can allow the use of fossil fuels until another energy source is introduced on a large scale.Some sectors of the economy, such as agriculture, are hard to de-carbonization. Industries with similar profiles may have to report to adopting negative emissions technologies. Sequestration takes multiple forms: Geological Carbon Sequestration (storage).Geological carbon sequestration is the process of storing carbon dioxide in underground geologic formations, or rocks. Typically, carbon dioxide is captured from an industrial source, such as steel or cement production, or an energy-related source, such as a power plant or natural gas processing facility and injected into porous rocks for long-term storage using CCS and CMR machinery.. Biological Carbon Sequestration (storage).Biological carbon sequestration is the storage of carbon dioxideatural in natural ecosystems. They act like the lungs of the Earth's biosphere. They inhale and an exhale gasses, to achieve an overall balanced effect. Biological carbon sequestration is the storage of carbon dioxide in natural ecosystems. Soil.Plants use photosynthesis to sequester carbon in soil where it is stored as soil organic carbon (SOC) for several decades. Agricultural processes can deplete and degrade the SOC levels. Over periods around 70,000 years, carbon dioxide dissolves in water and percolates the soil, as it mixes with calcium and magnesium minerals to create inorganic carbonates in arid and dresert soils. Soil can also store carbon as carbonates. Researchers are studying methods to accelerate the carbonate forming processtore in carbon in soil now depleted by agricultural usage, by adding finely crushed silicates, capable of storin gcarbon for longer periods of time. Grassland ecosystemsGrasslands are more resilient than forests. They sequester most of their carbon underground. When they burn, the carbon stays fixed in the roots and soil. Grassland ecosystems make up the temperate grasslands, savannas, pampas, steppe, and shrublands. They are in similar temperate climates, have moderate rainfall, and are comprised of grasses, herbs, and shrubs, as the dominant vegetation type, with few trees. Grasslands are found in Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay, he steppe of Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan, prairied in North America, made up of the Interior Lowlands of Canada, the United States, and Mexico, and including the Great Plains, and the wetter, hillier land to the east. Grasslands can be more effective than forests if they do not get get hit by droughts and wildfires. ( University of California, Davis, research). Forest ecosystems.Forests are carbon sinks. Deforestation can contribute to the destruction of forests as carbon sinks. About 25% of global carbon emissions are captured by forest ecosystems. Forests have the ability to store more carbon than grasslands, but in unstable conditions due to climate change. Deforestation can contribute to the destruction of forests as carbon sinks. The carbon stored in the trees either releases into the atmosphere or is transferred into the soil as leaves and branches fall and trees die. As drought and wildfires increase, temperatures rise, trees like California’s Sequoia become carbon sources. Ocean ecosystems.The polar regions serve as carbon sinks. About 25% of global carbon emissions are captured by ocean ecosystems. Carbon goes in both directions in the ocean. When carbon dioxide is released into the biosphere from the ocean, it creates positive atmospheric flux. When absorbing carbon dioxide it creates negative flux. Colder and nutrient rich parts of the ocean absorb more carbon dioxide than warmer parts. Scientists are concerned that eventually the oceans will be made up of carbon dioxide. This would make the oceans more acidic because the chemistry of the water will fall below pH7, making it more acidic. Understanding the case for negative emissions. Negative technologies such as CCS and CMR are needed to take CO2e out of the atmosphere to offset those emissions. 2. Understanding Carbon capture requires a distinction to be made between carbon capture at a point source, versus carbon dioxide removal from the accumulated pool in the atmosphere.3. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) and carbon dioxide removal (CDR) must be done in parallel. 4. Different levels of work are required for different separation processes, depending on the stream from which CO2 must be removed. For example, CO2 in the atmosphere is the most dilute system, whereby the conveyed solid particles are uniformly suspended in the carrier gas, compared to the concentration in Jet-A combustion. 5. As the concentration increases, fewer inert materials have to be blocked. Counterreaction to negative emissions approach.Negative emissions technologies of concern - carbon capture & storage (CCS) and carbon monoxide recovery (CMR).1. Some sectors of the economy, such as agriculture, are hard to de-carbonization. Negative emissions technologies such as CCS and CMR, specifically sequestration, are needed to take CO2e out of the atmosphere to offset those emissions. 2. Understanding Carbon capture requires a distinction to be made between carbon capture at a point source, versus carbon dioxide removal from the accumulated pool in the atmosphere.3. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) and carbon dioxide removal (CDR) must be done in parallel. 4. Different levels of work are required for different separation processes, depending on the stream from which CO2 must be removed. For example, CO2 in the atmosphere is the most dilute system, whereby the conveyed solid particles are uniformly suspended in the carrier gas, compared to the concentration in Jet-A combustion. 5. As the concentration increases, fewer inert materials have to beo your block, write your own text and edit me. Public policy can be a positive or negative Businesses that do not understand the political and public policy contexts that they operate in and are not strategic in their interactions with government are at a competitive disadvantage. 1. Wind power providers have to act in the context of a very complex set of local, state, and federal governmental policies that influence their costs of providing wind energy and the price they can charge for their energy. 2. Local zoning laws can prevent the siting of wind turbines because of environmental concerns. 3. Concerns arise about how the turbines will affect local habitats, including bird populations; local noise ordinances; and concerns about potential reductions in local property values due to view disruptions. 4. State laws can determine the market for wind and other renewable energy sources through laws, such as renewable portfolio standards (RPS), that require state-level electrical energy production to include a certain percentage of energy from renewable sources. 5. Federal laws and programs can provide incentives for investment in renewable energy sources through tax credits and favorable types of tax treatment intended to help to reduce carbon emissions and dependence on foreign energy sources. Combined, the mix of public policy considerations can delay projects from going online. Local and State permissions can take around 10 years, federal permitting can take another five, building out the project and going operational may take another three years.

Timeline(s). November 9, 2021, Glascow. U.S. releases first-ever comprehensive aviation Climate Action Plan to Achieve Net-Zero Emissions by 2050. For a full briefing go to: https://www.faa.gov/newsroom/us-releases-first-ever-comprehensive-aviation-climate-action-plan-achieve-net-zero https://www.faa.gov/sustainability/aviation-climate-action-plan. The ICAO CORSIA scheme timeline of 2035 may be tight and so something radical may have to be developed with flexibility to reset the time to 2050, the year airlines are to be at Net-Zero GHG emissions. Radically new conncepts are being discussed to solve three problems. The first is a constant, aircraft safety. The next is variable depending on the source of supply of energy and the range of sources, in order to reduce fuel burn yet again by 25 to 30%. And now that the Earth is heating up, Together, UNFCCC, ICAO and IATA plan believe the CORSIA scheme will solve the problem of reducing the carbon intensity, and the levels of CO2e aircraft emisssions to net-zero by mid-century. Disruptive technologies.IATA is is also evaluating futuristic concepts. Their outlook considers two disruptive transport types that might partially replace subsonic commercial light in the near future: For short-haul traffic, Hyperloop is a ground-based passenger and cargo transport system currently in the test phase, reaching similar travel speeds as commercial aircraft. For long-haul connections, new supersonic aircraft offer potential. IATA expects to see a revival for supersonic aircraft in the 2020s, first for business and later for commercial travel. The environmental challenges related to supersonic aircraft are higher than for subsonic aircraft. Fuselage. The range of airframe concepts to date include those illustrated below such as the bullet shaped fuselage, the strut-braced wing, the blended wing body, the double-bubble fuselage, the box-wing aircraft and the blended wing body. Most layouts can carry about 100 to 200 passengers and would be compatible with todays airports. We will have to wait and see what the mock-ups look like before we can ascertain passenger accceptance in terms of safety, any gains in boarding times and passenger comfort. Energy. The energy options include, battery power providing electric propulsion, SAF, green hydrogen, synthetic fuels and hybrids. Engines. The powerplant options are open rotors, boundary layer ingestion and electric aircraft propulsion. Batteries are limited size and capacity. Due to their heavy weight per unit of stored energy, batteries as primary energy storage for aircrat propulsion, placing limitations on the size and range of such aircraft. Various categories of hybrid electric aircraft propulsion exist as well, which use liquid fuel as a primary energy source. They benefit from the high energy efficiency of electric motors, and of batteries as an additional energy source for peakloads. IATA is saying several electrically-powered general aviation aircraft types are in operation. Specialized start-up companies are working on 15 to 20-seaters for the next decade and 50 to 100 seats regional aircraft, announced for entry into service around 2035. Even though this time scale seems optimistic, it shows the stepwise scalability of electric aircraft technology, which helps reduce its development risk. While today about 65% of electricity generation comes from fossil sources and produces significant amounts of CO2, it is likely that the share of renewable electricity will increase noticeably in the next decades, thanks to governments’ and industry's current focus on climate action throughout all sectors. (IATA) Carbon.ATA has studied the impact of new technologies on future CO2 emissions from the global aviation fleet. They modelled for different scenarios describing various degrees of air traffic growth and technology implementation. Three air traffic growth scenarios, developed in the IATA 20-year passenger forecast, were combined with five technology implementation scenarios. Compared to a reference case with no new aircraft models introduce after the ones sold today, the most optimistic scenario with the introduction of electric aircraft over 150 seats before 2050 achieves a reduction of typically 25% of CO2 emissions. After a peak in the late 2010s and with annual fuel efficiency improvements well above 1.5% until shortly after 2020, a slowdown of improvement below 1.0% p.a. in the late 2020s is observed (which does not consider entry of a new 210–300-seater in the mid-2020s, (which is not yet official). After 2035, the improvement rate strongly depends on the scenario chosen.